·　　　　 A greater and reinforced understanding of how to structure paragraphs, especially topic sentences and concluding sentences

·　　　　 Practice on getting the writing process started

·　　　　 Practice writing English scientific papers

·　　　　 An understanding of how to categorise in English

 

First, see the previous lectures for an in-depth discussion of the exact components of scientific writing, and what constitutes each element (especially Lecture 4).

All scientific papers should include:

·　　　　 Title, should explain the contents of the paper

·　　　　 Abstract, a concise digest of the content of the paper

·　　　　 Introduction, a statement of the problem, including past research and this contribution

·　　　　 Methods, an explanation of how the experiment was done

·　　　　 Results, a presentation of summarised data, with narrative text, tables and figures

·　　　　 Discussion, the researcher’s interpretation of the results

·　　　　 Conclusions, the researchers conclusions from the data, relating back to the problem

·　　　　 Acknowledgments, giving credit to people who helped and grant assistance

·　　　　 Bibliography, a list of all references used in the paper

 

I know that many of you have difficulty getting started; in fact, even I sometimes find this the hardest part of writing. The method I am suggesting to you is also helpful in situations where you seem to have reached a dead-end in your writing, and do not know where to go from the point you are.

The method is as follows:

·　 Look at a problem/point for discussion

·　 Write down anything that comes into your mind. These do not have to be sentences.

·　 After you have written a page or so of bullet-points or sentences, look closely at what you have written

·　 From here try and form a topic sentence – what is your general opinion on the matter? What are the interesting points? What do most of the sentences discuss?

·　 After your topic sentence, you should be able to provide some evidence to back up the statement you made in your topic sentence.

·　 Then explain how the evidence proves that the statement you made in your topic sentence is correct.

·　 Then sum up your topic sentence and the paragraph in general.

Below are some points for discussion:

·　 The modern Chinese approach to education compared to the Western approach to education.

·　 The value of Chinese characters/pictograms as compared with the alphabetical system of the Romance languages (English, French, Latin and so on).

·　 The Western idea that the Moon is a block of cheese, and the Chinese idea that the moon is a hook. What are the reasons for these different ideas?

·　 The value of a Ph. D for finding a job

·　 Whether Chinese is a difficult language to learn

·　 Whether English is a difficult language to learn

·　 Anything else which you want to talk about, outside of your area of study

“A paragraph is a group of related sentences, which develop one main idea (the topic sentence). The topic sentence tends to be a general rather than a specific idea. The main idea of the topic sentence controls the rest of the paragraph. Usually it is the first sentence in the paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come after a transition sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph.

Topic sentences are not the only way to organise a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need a topic sentence. For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail the steps in an experiment do not usually need topic sentences. They are useful, however, in paragraphs that analyse and argue. They are particularly useful for writers who have difficulty developing focused, unified paragraphs (i.e. writers who tend to waffle). Topic sentences help these writers develop a main idea for their paragraphs and most importantly stay focused. Topic sentences also help guide the reader through complex arguments.”[1]

 

Please use the information given above to create an appropriate topic sentence that will complete a paragraph using the below supporting sentences.

Exercise 1:

a. Some fires are caused by careless people tossing matches out of car windows.

b. A few are started when lightning strikes a tree.

c. Some result from campers who fail to douse cooking fires.

d. The majority of forest fires are deliberately set by arsonists.

Exercise 2:

a. We had to wait a half hour even though we had reserved a table.

b. Our appetizers and main courses all arrived at the same time.

c. The waiter ignored our requests for more water.

d. The wrong desserts were delivered to us.

Exercise 3:

a. My phone goes dead at certain times of the day.

b. When I talk long distance, I hear conversations in the background.

c. The line to the phone service center is busy for hours.

d. My telephone bill includes three calls I never made.

Adventure Tourism
Adventure tourism is a different way for tourists to see New Zealand. This type of tourism uses the plentiful natural resources - mountains, rivers, lakes, wilderness areas and historical sites to provide adventure, thrills and challenges which are low risk but high in excitement. For example, the coastal areas in New Zealand are great for canoeing and kayaking. White-water rafting is another popular water adventure tour. However, if you would rather keep your feet on the ground, New Zealand has over 100 developed walkways in addition to the tracks in the 12 National Parks. Because more and more tourists are interested in learning about New Zealand by doing exciting and unusual activities, adventure tourism will continue to grow.

 　　  Time Management
No matter how you slice it, there are only 24 hours in a day. To be successful at university, students need to learn good time-management skills. The first skill is not taking on more than you can handle. If you are a working part-time, have a family and are involved in a community organisation, then taking a full course-load at university will be too much. Another time management skill is reasonably estimating the time required to perform each of the tasks at hand. For example, deeply reading a chapter from a course text cannot be completed in between television programmes. Finally, actually doing what needs to be done seems obvious, but is a very difficult skill. You may find that cleaning out your wardrobe becomes vital when you are avoiding study. Procrastination is a time manager's enemy. By learning time management skills your university study will be successful and most importantly enjoyable.  


 　　 Have Heart
The heart weighs about 11 ounces and is the size of a clenched fist. The heart of a man performs at about 60 to 80 beats a minute. In a year it beats some 40 million times. At each beat it takes in nearly a quarter of a pint of blood; in a single day it pumps 2,200 gallons of blood, and in the course of a single lifetime about 56 million gallons. Is there any other engine capable of carrying on such heavy work over such a long period of time without needing to be repaired? Obviously the human heart is a small yet highly efficient piece of equipment.

Thousands of new people are born on our planet every day. The number of inhabitants in the world has already reached over six billion. If the present growth rate remains unchecked, the world may soon face wide-spread starvation, poverty, and serious health problems. __________________________________ (topic sentence).

A) Therefore, it is predicted that the world will face serious health problems in the near future.
B) The rapid growth of the world's human population is the most important problem the world needs to address.
C) One of the burning issues is the population explosion in third world countries.

Factors in success at university

The most important factor is a student's past experience of study. If a student has already developed good study habits, study at university should not be difficult. Good study habits need to be complemented by interest and motivation, factors which are important when competition gets tough. We should however not underestimate the distracting effects of financial and personal difficulties. All students have to grapple with these at some stage of their university life. Beyond the personal factors it has to be said that there is also a certain element of luck involved in success: this includes finding excellent teachers and the subject matter that inspires one to give one's best.

 　　 Genetic engineering: no going back?

Animal breeding for particular features may soon become obsolete with the new-found ability of scientists to work at the level of genes. On the one hand there are those who embrace the new bio-technology: genetic engineering. They argue that many genetic changes will be hugely beneficial and harmless. As long as safeguards are in place, they claim, humans would be foolish not to take advantage of the many benefits genetic engineering has to offer. Others have seen the speed with which gene manipulation can get out of hand, mixing species so that vegetable and animal are no longer distinguishable. They want to wind the clock back. But can they?

 

In this exercise, for both paragraphs, you should identify the concluding sentence, and then comment upon whether it is effective or not.

Paragraph 1
(1) Whales, one of nature's largest mammals, can be divided into two categories. (2) Baleen whales are one kind of whale. (3) Baleen whales have a type of keratin[6] called baleen that hangs in their mouths and sifts food from the ocean waters. (4) Baleen whales can consume up to 9,000 pounds of fish a day. (5) The toothed whale is the other type of whale. (6) The toothed whales have teeth instead of baleen. (7) They gnaw and chew on their meals. (8) Like the baleen whales, the toothed whales consume large portions of food each day. (9) Though many varieties of whales exist in our oceans, they are all categorized according to whether they have baleen or teeth inside their gigantic mouths.

Paragraph 2:
(1) The letters WWW do not stand for the "Wide World of Wrestling" as hooked wrestling fans may guess. (2) Nor do they stand for something, such as widow, related to a world war. (3) The letters WWW refer to the World Wide Web, more commonly referred to simply as the Web. (4) As millions of people worldwide access the Web on a regular basis, the letters ‘WWW’ are typed millions of times on a daily basis. (5) Many web site addresses begin with the letters WWW, which basically indicate to the user that he or she will enter the World Wide Web in order to locate the web address. (6) Technology has made the three letters WWW into possibly the most frequently used and most commonly known letter pattern in the world.

For the exercises on page 8 (“Topic Sentences Exercises”), go through exercises 1, 2, and 3 and, using the topic sentences we have discussed, create a full paragraph. This paragraph should have a topic sentence, logically ordered supporting statements, and concluding sentences.

 

This checklist, adapted from about.com, provides a good approach

1. Does the paragraph have a clear and concise main idea? Is this idea made clear to the reader early in the paragraph?
2. Does the paragraph have a specific purpose (such as to explain, entertain, evaluate, or persuade)? Have you made this purpose clear to the reader?
3. Does the paragraph develop logically from the previous one?
4. Is the paragraph clearly related to the main idea of the essay?
5. Is the main point of the paragraph adequately and clearly supported with specific details?
6. Is there a clear transition from one paragraph to the next? Have key words and ideas been given proper emphasis in the sentences and paragraphs?
7. Are the sentences clear and direct? Can they be understood on the first reading? Are the sentences varied in length and structure? Could any sentences be improved by combining or restructuring them?
8. Are the words in the essay clear and precise? Does the paragraph maintain a consistent tone? Is it consistent with what else you have written?
9. Does the paragraph have an effective conclusion--one that emphasizes the main idea of the paragraph and provides a sense of completeness?

Exercise:

　　　 Task 1: Describe the style or styles for each section of a paper (active or passive voice, and which tense). Refer to these styles as you complete the following tasks.

　　　 Task 2: Write an ‘Introduction’ to the research, considering what information is appropriate and necessary for an informed and intelligent reader of this article. Your introduction should include all the elements of an introduction, which we have already discussed in this class. This means that you must try your best to answer the five questions necessary for an ‘Introduction’:

1.　　  What is the problem?

2.　　  Why is it interesting and important?

3.　　  Why is it hard? (e.g., why do naive approaches fail?)

4.　　  Why hasn't it been solved before? (Or, what's wrong with previous proposed solutions? How does this proposal differ?)

5.　　  What are the key components of my approach and results? Also include any specific limitations.

 

The information provided to you is limited; however, you must work within these limitations and try your best to create an ‘Introduction’ section with information provided.

 

　　　 Task 3: Write the ‘Method’ section for this paper, using all the correct elements and conventions of scientific papers. Note: The ‘Method’ section is labelled ‘Procedures’ in this paper. This means that the ‘Method’ section should be in a single narrative, in past tense, and in passive voice. Also think carefully about how you will structure and order your ‘Method’ section, and how many paragraphs you should use.

　　　 Task 4: Write the ‘Results’ section of this paper, using all the correct elements of a scientific paper. This means that you will avoid going into the ‘Discussion’ element of the paper, while at the same time you will not simply write out raw data. Think carefully about how to describe what the graph represents.

　　  Task 5: Write the ‘Conclusion’ section of this paper, using all the correct elements of a scientific paper. You should use the data provided in the paper to attempt to form a conclusion about this experiment. Do not worry too much about whether the conclusions are valid, simply focus upon creating a conclusion from the data provided to you.

　　　 Task 6: To the best of your ability, write the ‘Discussion’ section of this paper. Again, do not worry too much about the validity of what you are discussing; simply attempt to create a ‘Discussion’ section according to the form which I have already outlined.

　　　 Task 7: Write an abstract for the paper, using all the elements of a correct scientific abstract. It should only be around 300 words long. Remember

　　　 Task 8: Go through the same process for the second example. Also, you should give this paper a title which accurately, succinctly, and within one sentence describes the paper and its contents.

Does Rock Salt and Car Oil Affect Plant Growth?

 

Abstract	I am doing my experiment on "Does Rock Salt and Car Oil Affect Plant Growth?" I chose this topic because as I was looking out of my car window going down the road, I wondered what rock salt and car oil do to the grass.  I thought that both the car oil and rock salt would destroy the plants over a period of time.  I thought this because it seemed like a interesting project.   To do this experiment,　 I potted and added the rock salt and car oil to water for the specific plant.　 Then I poured in 60 milliliters of each mixture.  Next, I sat the pots 10 - 12 centimeters away from each other.  I covered the extra mixture such as the rock salt/water solution, car oil/water solution  and the regular water.  When necessary, I watered the plants and check the plants to record the result.   The results I observed were not as I expected.  I thought that the plant with the car oil and water will die first.  It turned out that the plant with the rock salt and water died first.  I think this information is valuable to help people when they are putting down rock salt.  Now they probably wont put down as much halite's.  By looking at my plant, they will know that the sidewalk is able to handle the rock salt.
Procedure	1. Plant one Curly Ficus plant each, in a 8 centimeter pot with the help of my sister. 2. Label one plant ‘water only’, another ‘oil’, and another ‘salt’. 3. Mix 55 ml of car oil (10W-30)) in 2 liters of water. Shake well. 4. In a separate 2 liter bottle, put 1 liter of tap water only  5. In another 2 liter bottle, mix 1 liter of tap water and 133 grams of rock salt. Shake  well. 6. Pour 60 ml of car oil in water over plant #1. 7. Pour 60 ml of water only over plant #2. 8. Pour  60 ml of water and rock salt (halite) over plant #3. 9. Place the pots 10-12 cm from each other in medium sunlight. 10. Make sure you keep solutions that you are going to use again covered. 11. Water plants twice weekly with solutions. 12. Check plants every other day and record results.
Results
	Plant 1 is water. Plant 2 is oil. Plant 3 is salt.  The plant with the oil and water is dying.  The leaves are turning black brownish.  The branches and stems are growing downward and little white droplets are at the bottom of the plant.  The water only plant or plant #2 is growing as a normal, healthy, strong, plant would grow.  In fact, little stems, new growth, started to grow at the top.  The third plant is rock salt and water.  By now the leaves are all crumbled up and frosted like snowflakes.  The cup at the bottom that catches the water has turned into salt.
Bibliography & Links	Becklake, John.Pollution.GloucesterPress: New York, 1990.   Breiter, Herta S.Pollution. Rain tree Children Books: Milwaukee. 1992    Hapgood, Fred. "The Quest for Oil".National GeographicVol. 176,  No. 2, August 1989:  227-263.    Hodgson, Bryan.  "Can the Wilderness Heal?" National GeographicVol. 177, No. 1.  Jan 1990:  5-43.    Nixon, Hershell J.Oil and Gas, From Fossils to Fuels. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich:New York, 1988

 

 

Abstract 

Purpose: 
 Which metals will be affected by salt water? I chose this experiment because I have been curious about which metals rust and which don’t. Tin, copper, and aluminum are going to be affected the most because I see these metals everywhere. Gold and nickel will be affected the least because they cost the most and are high quality. 

Procedure: 
 First, fill each 600 mL beaker with 300 mL of tap water. Next add the salt to the tap water, and stir with a popsicle until a solution is formed. Then put a metal in each beaker of salt water. Place all the beakers in the same area. Observe and record your results once a day at the same time for five days. 

Conclusion: 
 The copper, brass, nickel, tin, and iron rusted. The salt (acid) ate away at the metals taking off the coating. The gold, stainless steel, and the aluminum were stronger, so the acid did not uncover the cover. If acid rain occurs a lot in your area you might want to cover your house with aluminum or stainless steel. 

Materials　 

 
1. (8) 600 mL clear glass beakers 
2. 300 mL of 72 degrees Fahrenheit (22 degrees Celsius) of tap water per beaker 
3. 25 mL of Morton Salt per beaker 
4. 8 metals: tin, iron, nickel, copper, brass, gold, stainless steel, aluminum  　　　  (all same size) 
5. Popsicle sticks

 

Procedure　 

1.　　　 Fill each beaker with the same amount of tap water from the Kitchen tap.

2.　　　 Add the salt to the tap water. 

3.　　　 Stir the salt and water until a solution is formed with the stick. 

4.　　　 Put one metal into each beaker of salt water. 

5.　　　 Put the beakers on the table.

6.　　　 Observe and record results once a day for five days in a notebook.

Results　 

Copper: 
 Day 1: Rust began to form on the outside. 
 Day 2: Rust began to form inside, and more on the outside. 
 Day 3: The water began to turn blue-green. 
 Day 4: The rust turned blue-green. 
 Day 5: The salt made a white ring around the beaker. 

Brass:  
 Day 1: Rust began to form on the outside. 
 Day 2: More rust formed on the outside, and some formed inside. 
 Day 3: The water turned blue-green, and salt settled on the brass. 
 Day 4: A streak of blue-green rust formed on the outside.  
 Day 5: The water evaporated, and the salt made a white ring around the beaker. 

Nickel: 
 Day 1: No change 
 Day 2: Rust formed on the top. 
 Day 3: More rust formed on the top, and the water turned blue-green. 
 Day 4: The blue-green salt settled on the top of the nickel. 
 Day 5: A salt ring formed where the water evaporated. 

Tin: 
 Day 1: No change 
 Day 2: Some rust formed on the top. 
 Day 3: The rust started turning yellow. 
 Day 4: The water turned bright yellow. 
 Day 5: Some salt formed around the top of the beaker where the water was. 

Aluminum: 
 Day 1: No change 
 Day 2: No change 
 Day 3: No change 
 Day 4: No change 
 Day 5: No change 

Stainless steel: 
 Day 1: No change 
 Day 2: No change 
 Day 3: No change 
 Day 4: No change 
 Day 5: No change 
 

Gold: 
 Day 1: No change 
 Day 2: No change 
 Day 3: No change 
 Day 4: No change 
 Day 5: No change 

Iron:  
 Day 1: No change 
 Day 2: Some rust formed. 
 Day 3: More rust formed and the water started turning blue-green. 
 Day 4: Blue-green rust formed, and the water turned blue-green. 
 Day 5: A white salt ring formed around the beaker. 
 

Conclusion 

  
Copper, brass, nickel, tin, and iron all rusted. The water of the copper, brass, nickel, and tin turned blue-green. The water of the tin turned pale yellow. The nickel, tin, and iron rusted at the same pace; the copper and brass rusted at the same pace. The aluminum, gold, and stainless steel did not rust at all. 
 It is better for your car if the exterior is aluminum, stainless steel, or gold so your car wonπt get rusted by street salt. It is also best if the items in your house exposed to water are aluminum, stainless steel, or gold for longer life.  
 

Bibliography & Links　 

1. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge. United States of America: Grolier Inc.,1991
2. Eureka!. United States of America: U.X.L, 1995
3. The New Book of Popular Science. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Inc., 1996
4. Turck, Mary. Acid Rain. New York: Crestwood House, 1990
5. "Acid rain", "Sulfur", "Nitrogen." Webster’s College Dictionary. New York: Random  House Inc., 1996 

 

(http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp2/abstract.htm)

Summaries, as you know, are common in all kinds of writing, usually appearing at the end of a chapter or article, highlighting the major point of the piece and outlining the significant detail. However, writers use many other forms of summary too. In business writing, for example, reports often begin with a summary, called an executive summary, allowing the reader a chance to see if the report (or some section of the report) is relevant to him/her before reading much of it. In academic writing, essays, articles, and reviews often begin with a summary too, called an abstract.

Abstracts are very common in academic writing, and they have a fairly standard form. In essence, abstracts inform the reader of six bits of information about the piece of writing being summarized:

1. purpose
   • What is the author's reason for writing?
   • What is the author's main idea?
2. scope
   • What is the author's focus in this piece?
   • Where does the author concentrate his/her attention?
3. method
   • What kinds of evidence does the author provide?
   • How does the author try to convince the reader of the validity of his/her main idea?
4. results
   • What are the consequences of the problem or issue that the author is discussing?
5. recommendations
   • What solutions does the author present to the reader to resolve the problem of issue in the piece?
   • Does the author recommend action or change in his/her piece?
6. conclusions
   • Does the author describe a 'cause and effect' relationship or explain the origins of this issue or problem?
   • What conclusions does the author draw from his/her study of the issue or problem?

Abstracts are not long — only about a paragraph. (If each point above, for example, got its own sentence, then the abstract would be six sentences long. Many writers find that they can combine several of the sentences of the abstract when the ideas are closely related.) At the beginning of an essay, abstracts allow you to introduce your subject to your readers before you go into your analysis in detail.

(www.uq.edu.au/student-services/linkto/phdwriting/phlink08.html)

If you think about what an abstract has to contain, the abstract is really a mini-thesis. Both your thesis and your abstract have to answer the following specific questions: